Motor learning in judo: From basics to expertise

Motor learning is the complex process through which people develop new movements and skills. This process involves connections between various brain areas and learning mechanisms and is essential for mastering sport techniques like judo. Although learning a complex skill, such as becoming a top judoka, can take thousands of hours, studies on motor learning tasks can provide important insights into the fundamentals of motor learning.

Core components of motor learning 

Motor learning is a continuous and dynamic process based on three interconnected components:

1. Setting the movement goal: The process begins with determining the desired outcome of the movement. For a judoka, this might mean deciding to execute a particular throw to off-balance and throw the opponent.

2. Selecting the appropriate action: Based on the movement goal, an appropriate technique is chosen, considering the situation. This includes deciding which throw, combination, or timing will be most effective to achieve the goal.

3. Execution of the movement: The selected technique is performed accurately and controlled, optimizing precision, timing, and strength to achieve the intended result.

These three phases do not proceed linearly; they overlap and continuously influence each other. During the learning process, there is interplay between cognitive planning (pre-thinking strategies), sensorimotor adaptation (continuously adjusting movements based on sensory feedback), and behavioral refinement (improving motor behavior through experience). This dynamic allows a judoka to respond flexibly to variable circumstances, such as changing opponent strategies or physical fatigue.

For example: a judoka decides to perform a throw to score (movement goal), chooses the technique o-goshi based on the opponent's position (action selection), and adjusts balance and timing during execution to successfully complete the throw (execution). If the opponent reacts unexpectedly, the judoka quickly switches to an alternative direction with a different technique or modifies the current throw, demonstrating the adaptive nature of motor learning.

This ongoing interplay of thinking, feeling, and moving is crucial for the development of motor skills.

Feedback 

Feedback is an important part of motor learning. It includes all forms of information a sportsperson receives about their movement performance—such as visual signals (e.g., seeing how the opponent reacts), tactile information (the grip on the judogi and sensing what's happening or needed), and proprioceptive input (the sense of body posture and movement). This feedback enables the brain to adjust movements and improve the motor plan.

Error processing involves recognizing and correcting deviations from the desired movement goal. This process can happen both unconsciously and automatically (implicit learning), as well as consciously (explicit learning). For instance, a judoka noticing their throw is not going well might make small adjustments in grip or balance without thinking (implicit), while simultaneously consciously reflecting on what to do differently, like choosing a different technique better suited to the situation (explicit).

Research shows that how feedback is given greatly affects the learning process. Positive, success-oriented feedback is more effective than error-focused feedback. When feedback emphasizes what goes well, it activates the brain’s reward system, boosting motivation and facilitating learning. Conversely, negative or error-focused feedback can cause uncertainty, tension, and reduced willingness to learn, even if the information is accurate.

Normative feedback, which compares performance against others, is powerful but has two sides. Positive comparisons (“you perform above average”) can enhance confidence and motivation, improving learning. Negative comparisons can discourage and hinder the learning process.

The combination of intrinsic sensations (like the feeling of grip and its effect on the movement goal) and received feedback enables the motor system to analyze errors and exhibit adaptive behavior. Adaptation occurs because the brain makes better predictions about the effects of movements and constantly fine-tunes based on new input. This leads to increasingly accurate movement patterns.

For judokas, this means learning to notice subtle changes such as feeling that their grip is weakening, or seeing the opponent move unexpectedly, and responding quickly by adjusting technique. Thus, it is not only repetition that drives motor learning, but especially how feedback is used to refine movements and better align them with continually changing match situations.

Implicit and explicit learning 

Motor learning often seems automatic and unconscious but usually starts with conscious learning and attentive effort. For a beginner judoka, this means following explicit instructions, imitating movements, and actively thinking about techniques. This is called explicit learning: a conscious, cognitive form of learning where attention, memory, and strategies matter.

With more experience, learning progressively shifts toward implicit learning. This is the unconscious, automatic aspect where movements are executed without conscious control. An experienced judoka no longer needs to think through each step consciously yet can consistently and effectively perform techniques. Implicit learning enables quick reactions under pressure because it demands less cognitive capacity and is less sensitive to disruptions like stress or distraction.

Yet, explicit knowledge never completely disappears; it remains important. Explicit knowledge of techniques, tactics, and strategies supports consciously adapting movements to the opponent and making the right decisions during matches. Coaches and trainers play a crucial role in facilitating this interplay: they provide clear instructions and feedback to teach new behaviors while encouraging automation of those movements through repetition and practice.

Scientific research supports this interplay. While implicit learning heavily relies on brain structures controlling automatic, fast motor patterns, explicit processes involve other brain areas responsible for planning, memory, and conscious thought. During learning, explicit knowledge and strategies gradually become automated implicit skills that are faster, more stable, and demand less attention.

Ignoring implicit learning by overemphasizing conscious control can hinder motor performance (e.g., “overthinking” causes less smooth movement or delay). In contrast, too early a focus on automatic execution without enough explicit instruction may maintain errors and suboptimal techniques.

For judokas, coaches, and trainers, the goal is balance: explicit, conscious attention and instruction are necessary initially to learn techniques well. Over time, practitioners should be helped to automate and integrate this knowledge into the implicit motor system. This ensures techniques become fluent and robust under all conditions—from training to matches where stress is a greater factor.

Below are two training strategies illustrating the difference between practice that primarily promotes explicit learning versus that which suits implicit learning better.

Training strategy 1: Detailed technical instructions with conscious practice (Explicit learning)

Practice format: 

A coach provides a beginner judoka step-by-step instructions on a specific throw, e.g., o-goshi. The judoka is explained the body posture, hand and foot position, timing, and strength, practicing these elements consciously and slowly in isolation—first correct foot placement, then grip, etc. During practice, the coach regularly asks for discussion of the execution: “What makes you use your hip this way?” “How do you feel you use your strength well?” The judoka consciously reflects on their movements and adjusts where needed. This method uses feedback focused on technique details and increases knowledge of the movement.

Why it suits explicit learning: 

This type of training emphasizes conscious learning involving cognitive processes like attention, memory, and problem-solving. The focus is on understanding the movement, crucial in early learning phases. Through instruction and reflection, the judoka builds knowledge to recognize and consciously correct technical errors, essential for mastering new or complex techniques. However, too much focus on conscious thought can later disrupt automatic execution, so this method is especially valuable early on.

Training strategy 2: Practicing with external focus and minimal instructions in a variable environment (Implicit learning)

Practice format: 

A coach sets up a practice where an experienced judoka practices throws without detailed technical cues but with a clear focus on the movement’s effect. For example, the judoka is tasked with “off-balancing your opponent as quickly as possible” without specifying how to move arms, hips, or feet precisely. The environment varies (e.g., different types of partners), forcing the judoka’s motor system to adapt. The coach gives minimal technical feedback and encourages feeling movements and adjusting based on what the athlete senses and the outcome of execution.

Why it suits explicit learning: 

This method promotes unconscious learning through sensorimotor feedback, where the motor system finds optimal movements without heavy conscious cognitive control. An external focus of attention reduces cognitive load, resulting in smoother and faster execution. Environmental variability encourages adaptation and stabilization of motor patterns. Limited explicit instructions prevent excessive control and ‘stifling’ of natural movements. This is crucial for people with a high base level of knowledge and experience, aiming to elevate their skills.

These two strategies complement each other. Optimal development requires coaches and judokas to consciously switch between them: starting with explicit instruction to understand fundamentals, followed by more implicit practice to automate and flexibly adjust skills, sometimes switching back from implicit to more explicit forms.

By managing this interplay of conscious and unconscious learning well, motor skills can be developed and retained more effectively. This benefits not only technical mastery but also tactical insight.

De novo learning 

De novo learning refers to the process of acquiring entirely new motor skills or movement patterns never performed before. This differs from adjusting existing movements: a completely new movement pattern is built to execute the new technique.

For a judoka, this may mean learning a new throwing technique very different from previous ones. It could also involve adopting techniques from related martial arts, like Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, or developing new tactical moves to better handle unfamiliar opponents.

The learning process for de novo learning usually proceeds in two phases: initially, a cognitive phase where the judoka consciously focuses on understanding and planning the new movement, requiring considerable conscious attention and mental effort. Through repetition and practice, the movement becomes smoother and more automated. The movement becomes part of the motor repertoire and can be performed faster and more efficiently without conscious thought.

The strength of de novo learning lies in expanding motor capabilities with new movements, essential in a dynamic sport like judo. This process allows judokas to continually improve and remain unpredictable, integrating new techniques and tactically staying ahead of opponents. Without de novo learning, they would be limited to refining existing skills and less innovative.

In summary, de novo learning is the foundation for growth and renewal in motor skills. It starts with conscious cognitive effort and is supported by practice leading to automation. Thus, new movements become effective and reliable parts of the motor system.

Motor adaptation 

Motor adaptation is the motor system’s ability to adjust movements when changes occur in the body or environment. For example, when a judoka steps onto a slippery mat or faces a heavier opponent than expected, their brain modifies existing movement patterns to maintain technique effectiveness. These adjustments usually happen stepwise and are partly automatic but can also be consciously controlled.

Theoretically, motor adaptation is a form of motor learning in which an existing motor controller (the brain network controlling movements) is adjusted to continue performing well despite new challenges. Unlike learning a completely new movement (de novo learning), motor adaptation refines and updates existing patterns.

The cerebellum plays a key role in this process. It uses sensory feedback (information from muscles, joints, and senses) to predict expected movement outcomes. If the actual outcome deviates from these predictions, the cerebellum detects an ‘error’ and corrects future movements. This allows rapid motor adjustments without conscious thought.

Motor variability (small differences between repeated movements) is not mere noise but a mechanism for the motor system to explore new solutions. When a movement doesn’t yield the desired result, the brain increases variability to try alternatives, balancing exploration of new movements and exploitation of successful patterns.

Motor adaptation’s importance within motor learning is significant, especially in judo, a sport marked by constant change: different opponents, conditions, fatigue, or injuries require quick and effective technique adaptation. Motor adaptation enables judokas to respond, e.g., by slightly modifying a throw if grip weakens or switching technique if a muscle group functions less.

Suggestions for fostering motor adaptation in training:

1. Variation in training environments and conditions 

Practice with various partners, surfaces, speeds, and even modified judogi. This variability naturally trains the motor system’s adaptive capacity.

2. Introduce unpredictable situations 

Simulate unexpected movements or changing conditions to encourage exploring new motor strategies. For example, exercises where sparring partners suddenly switch favored sides or change strategies (more attacking/defensive).

3. Focus on movement effects, not technical details 

Encourage external focus: judokas concentrate on the intended outcome, like moving the opponent in a specific direction, facilitating implicit motor adjustment.

In short, motor adaptation keeps motor control consistent and flexible in changing situations, essential for performance on the judo mat.

Sequential learning 

Judo techniques and movements are often performed in linked series or combinations, where correct timing and throw choices are crucial. Improving this is called sequential learning: acquiring the correct order of movements so they flow efficiently.

Theoretically, sequential learning means linking separate movements into an ordered chain that can be executed quickly and reliably. We distinguish discrete movements (a single throw with a clear start and end, performed in sequence) and continuous movements (a combination of successive throws). In practice, a judoka often combines multiple discrete movements into a continuous action, requiring ongoing control and timing.

With frequent practice, these elements become grouped into ‘chunks’ in the brain. A chunk is a compact group of actions stored and recalled as one. This chunking mechanism allows longer series of techniques to be executed faster, with less cognitive load and more precision. Practically, this means the judoka does not need to consciously initiate each movement; the entire sequence is automated and performed as one.

This organization makes it easier to remember and better execute complex combinations, reducing the need to think about every step. This is crucial in judo, where rapid reaction matters. For example, a judoka who has practiced combination steps individually can later apply them smoothly and automatically in competition.

Another key aspect is that sequential learning can be sequence-specific or sequence-independent. This means not only learning exact orders benefits performance but also improving individual movement elements, which can then be flexibly combined in different sequences. For example, a judoka skilled in various individual throws can apply these faster and better in new sequences.

In summary, sequential learning is indispensable for fluid and effective technique execution and combinations. Training correct orders and chunking enables complex motor tasks to be managed, boosting performance.

Motor Acuity 

Besides learning which movement to make, it is vital to ensure the movement is executed better each time. This is called motor acuity—the precision and consistency of a movement. Motor acuity involves performing the movement not only correctly but also smoothly, precisely, and with minimal errors and variability.

In judo, this might mean that the entry pattern for a throw becomes more consistent and precise with practice. This makes the throw more effective because the movement is efficient and better aligned with the goal.

Motor acuity improves through continuous practice and repetition, allowing the brain and muscles to better coordinate. This process reduces noise and unnecessary energy loss, resulting in more controlled movement.

The outcome of better motor acuity is that a judoka can repeat movements more consistently, react faster, and make fewer mistakes—an advantage in competition. It develops alongside learning the movement itself and becomes more critical as the judoka advances.

Tips for coaches to improve motor acuity:

1. Quality repetition 

Encourage practicing techniques with emphasis on precision and smoothness, not just quantity. This fosters fine control over movements.

2. Targeted feedback 

Provide feedback helping judokas notice and correct subtle deviations or inaccuracies. Positive and specific feedback on what goes well supports motivation and movement refinement.

3. Variation in practice conditions 

Vary training environments so judokas learn to execute movements flexibly and adequately, e.g., under fatigue, on different surfaces, or with various opponent types.

4. External focus of attention 

Direct judokas’ attention during training to the movement’s effect (e.g., ‘throw in a certain direction’) rather than muscle actions, promoting natural automation of fluid movements.

5. Use of video and self-observation 

Reviewing training or competition footage helps judokas become aware of subtle execution differences, improving motor accuracy.

Focusing on these fosters higher motor acuity, enhancing mat performance.

Expertise 

Top-level judo goes beyond faster, more precise technique execution. Expertise involves developing cognitive skills like strategy, anticipation, decisiveness, and flexible tactical adjustment during matches. Like a chess grandmaster foreseeing complex move combinations mentally without physical action, an expert judoka devises clever plans to surprise opponents and constantly adapts to changing conditions.

Two levels of motor learning are distinguished:

• Skill: Improvement in speed and precision of known techniques. A judoka practicing a certain throw executes it faster and with fewer errors.

• Expertise: Goes beyond skills; developing new strategies and understanding complex situations elevating the entire game. An expert can invent innovative tactics and effective combinations that are unexpected and hard to counter.

Motor learning involves not just automating movements but also the ability to make the right decisions quickly in complex, unpredictable contexts. This requires cognitive processes like working memory, strategic thinking, and pattern recognition. These higher-order functions help judokas to:

• Analyze the opponent’s strategy before and during a fight.

• Flexibly adjust movement choices to mat situations.

• Develop new, effective techniques and combinations.

• Oversee complex situations and make optimal decisions swiftly.

These skills develop through years of practice focused not only on motor perfection but also cognitive refinement. Research shows most time to reach expertise goes into improving cognitive aspects like tactics, not just motor execution.

Tips for coaches to enhance judokas’ expertise:

• Train not only movement techniques but also strategic thinking and anticipation.

• Encourage exploring different scenarios in randori and test matches to draw tactical lessons.

• Promote cognitive skills like recognizing opponent behavior patterns and making smart decisions rapidly.

• Understand that expertise development is a long process beyond technical repetition; it calls for a broad approach integrating motor and cognitive processes.

This broad focus helps judokas master techniques and evolve into smart, flexible, adaptable athletes performing at elite level.

Summary 

Motor learning is a complex process where interconnected aspects collaborate to transform a judoka from beginner to expert. In judo, as in other complex sports, motor learning includes not just acquiring techniques but also the ability to flexibly adjust, combine, and refine skills in changing contexts.

Key integrated motor learning processes:

1. Adaptation 

The motor system continuously adjusts movements to body changes (e.g., fatigue, strength, injury) and the environment (e.g., different surfaces, opponents, competition conditions) to keep techniques effective despite variability. Adaptation is essential for consistent performance in dynamic situations like matches.

2. Sequential learning 

Judo consists of linked movements and techniques. Sequential learning means mastering their correct order and timing for smooth, efficient execution. Through repetition, judokas form ‘chunks’ of movement sequences executed as one, enabling faster reaction and combination.

3. De novo learning 

Learning entirely new movement patterns and strategies never performed before. Basis for innovation, like new throws, tactics, or handling unusual opponents. Starts with cognitive effort, then practice automates new skills.

4. Motor acuity 

Improving movement execution quality—precision, smoothness, consistency. Reduces motor noise and energy waste, leading to more effective and reliable techniques.

5. Expertise 

Extends beyond motor skill to advanced cognitive abilities like strategy, anticipation, decision-making, and applying complex tactical insight under pressure. Expertise arises from interplay of high-level motor skills and refined cognition, crucial for top success.

These motor learning facets are not isolated but overlap and strengthen each other. Effective judotraining requires an integrated approach where coaches:

• Understand and address technical (motor) and cognitive components.

• Design training with varied environments and conditions to promote adaptation.

• Progress from conscious explicit learning early on to implicit automated learning with differentiated feedback and attention.

• Combine sequential practice and chunking to develop smooth technique combinations.

• Facilitate de novo learning by allowing room for new techniques and strategies.

• Stimulate motor acuity focusing on movement efficiency, precision, and external attention.

• Develop expertise through strategic thinking, anticipation, and scenario training in randori and competition settings.

This perspective on motor learning leads to more effective training that helps judokas develop technically and tactically, adapt to complex situations, and ultimately perform at the highest level.

Krakauer, J. W., Hadjiosif, A. M., Xu, J., Wong, A. L., & Haith, A. M. (2019). Motor learning. Comprehensive Physiology, 9 (2), 613–663. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c170043